Article 4: A Taxonomy of Knowledge Transfer

This the fourth article in the series on collective performance we will be looking at knowledge transfer as a process within organizations, enabling the dissemination of information, skills and expertise from one entity to another. It facilitates innovation, enhances performance and sustains competitive advantage (Davenport & Prusak, 1998). To effectively manage and leverage knowledge transfer, it is essential to understand its various types, mechanisms and influencing factors. Developing a taxonomy of knowledge transfer provides a structured framework for organizations to analyse and improve their knowledge management practices.

This article presents a detailed taxonomy of knowledge transfer, categorising its types, levels, mechanisms, processes, barriers and enablers. By comprehensively understanding these elements organizations can implement strategies to facilitate efficient knowledge transfer and optimise organizational performance.

Understanding Knowledge Transfer

Definition

Knowledge transfer refers to the process through which knowledge is shared and disseminated from one part of an organization to another or between organizations (Argote & Ingram, 2000). It encompasses the movement of both explicit and tacit knowledge across different levels and contexts.

Taxonomy of Knowledge Transfer:

1. Types of Knowledge

Explicit Knowledge

• Definition: Knowledge that is codified, documented and easily communicated (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995).
• Examples: Manuals, databases, procedures, reports.

Tacit Knowledge

• Definition: Personal, context-specific knowledge that is hard to formalize and communicate (Polanyi, 1966).
• Examples: Experiences, insights, intuition, skills[1].

2. Levels of Knowledge Transfer

Individual Level

• Description: Transfer of knowledge between individuals.
• Mechanisms: Mentoring, coaching, informal conversations.

Team Level

• Description: Sharing knowledge within and between teams.
• Mechanisms: Team meetings, collaborative projects, communities of practice.

Organizational Level

• Description: Dissemination of knowledge across the entire organization.
• Mechanisms: Organizational learning programs, intranets, corporate training.

Inter-Organizational Level

• Description: Knowledge transfer between different organizations.
• Mechanisms: Strategic alliances, partnerships, joint ventures, industry conferences[2].

3. Mechanisms and Methods

Socialisation

• Process: Sharing tacit knowledge through shared experiences and interactions (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995).
• Methods: On-the-job training, apprenticeships, storytelling.

Externalisation

• Process: Converting tacit knowledge into explicit forms (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995).
• Methods: Writing manuals, documenting processes, creating models.

Combination

• Process: Systematically combining different bodies of explicit knowledge (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995).
• Methods: Databases, knowledge repositories, data integration.

Internalisation

• Process: Absorbing explicit knowledge and turning it into tacit knowledge through application (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995).
• Methods: Training programs, simulations, learning by doing.

4. Processes of Knowledge Transfer

Formal Processes

• Description: Structured and planned activities.
• Examples: Training sessions, workshops, seminars.

Informal Processes

• Description: Unstructured, spontaneous interactions.
• Examples: Casual conversations, informal networks, ad-hoc collaborations.

5. Barriers to Knowledge Transfer

Individual Barriers

• Lack of Trust: Reluctance to share knowledge due to fear of misuse or loss of ownership (Szulanski, 1996).
• Communication Skills: Inability to effectively articulate knowledge.

Organizational Barriers

• Cultural Differences: Variations in values and norms that hinder knowledge sharing (De Long & Fahey, 2000).
• Structural Silos: Departmental boundaries that limit cross-functional knowledge flow.

Technological Barriers

• Inadequate Systems: Lack of appropriate technology to support knowledge transfer (Alavi & Leidner, 2001).
• Accessibility Issues: Difficulty in accessing or retrieving stored knowledge.

6. Enablers of Knowledge Transfer

Leadership Support

• Role: Leaders promote a culture that values knowledge sharing (Davenport & Prusak, 1998).
• Actions: Encouraging open communication, providing resources.

Organizational Culture

• Characteristics: Cultures that emphasize collaboration and learning facilitate knowledge transfer (De Long & Fahey, 2000).
• Practices: Recognition and rewards for knowledge sharing, fostering trust.

Technology Infrastructure

• Components: Knowledge management systems, collaboration tools (Alavi & Leidner, 2001).
• Benefits: Enhances storage, retrieval and dissemination of knowledge.

Human Resource Practices

• Strategies: Recruitment of knowledge-sharing individuals, training programs (Scarbrough, 2003).
• Outcomes: Builds capabilities and reinforces knowledge transfer behaviours.

Visual Representation of the Taxonomy

To provide clarity organizations can create diagrams or tables summarizing the taxonomy, illustrating how the different categories interact and overlap.

Example Table: Summary of Knowledge Transfer Taxonomy

Category	Subcategory	Description
Types of Knowledge	- Explicit - Tacit	Codified vs. personal knowledge
Levels	- Individual - Team - Organizational - Inter-Organizational	Levels at which knowledge transfer occurs
Mechanisms	- Socialization - Externalization - Combination - Internalization	Methods based on SECI model (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995)
Processes	- Formal - Informal	Structured vs. spontaneous knowledge transfer processes
Barriers	- Individual - Organizational - Technological	Factors that impede knowledge transfer
Enablers	- Leadership Support - Organizational Culture - Technology Infrastructure - HR Practices	Factors that facilitate knowledge transfer

Application of the Taxonomy

Diagnosing Knowledge Transfer Issues

Organizations can use the taxonomy to identify where knowledge transfer may be breaking down by examining each category:

• Assess Barriers: Identify specific barriers at all levels as well as technological.
• Leverage Enablers: Implement strategies to enhance enablers, such as improving technology infrastructure or cultivating a supportive culture.

Designing Knowledge Management Strategies

• Tailoring Mechanisms: Choose appropriate mechanisms based on the type of knowledge and the level at which transfer is needed.
• Integrating Processes: Combine formal and informal processes to create a comprehensive approach.

Enhancing Organizational Learning

• Promoting Continuous Learning: Encourage ongoing knowledge transfer to support adaptability and innovation.
• Measuring Impact: Use performance metrics to evaluate the effectiveness of knowledge transfer initiatives.

Case Studies

Case Study 1: IBM's Knowledge Management Initiatives

• Challenge: IBM needed to harness the vast knowledge dispersed across its global operations.
• Solution: Implemented knowledge management systems and fostered communities of practice to facilitate knowledge sharing at all levels (Davenport & Prusak, 1998).
• Outcome: Improved collaboration, innovation and service delivery.

Case Study 2: Buckman Laboratories

• Challenge: Enhance knowledge sharing among employees to improve customer solutions.
• Solution: Developed a knowledge network supported by technology, encouraging employees to contribute and access knowledge (Pan & Scarbrough, 1998).
• Outcome: Increased responsiveness to customer needs and competitive advantage.

A comprehensive taxonomy of knowledge transfer equips organizations with the tools to systematically analyse and enhance their knowledge management practices. By understanding the types, levels, mechanisms, processes, barriers and enablers of knowledge transfer organizations can implement targeted strategies to facilitate effective knowledge sharing. This, in turn, drives innovation, improves performance and sustains competitive advantage.

Investing in knowledge transfer isn’t just about technology or processes; it involves cultivating a culture that values learning and collaboration. Organizations that excel in knowledge transfer are better positioned to adapt to change, meet customer needs and achieve long-term success.

References

Alavi, M., & Leidner, D. E. (2001). Review: Knowledge Management and Knowledge Management Systems: Conceptual Foundations and Research Issues. MIS Quarterly, 25(1), 107-136. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/200772522_Review_Knowledge_Management_and_Knowledge_Management_Systems_Conceptual_Foundations_and_Research_Issues

Argote, L., & Ingram, P. (2000). Knowledge Transfer: A Basis for Competitive Advantage in Firms. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 82(1), 150-169. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0749597800928930

Davenport, T. H., & Prusak, L. (1998). Working Knowledge: How Organizations Manage What They Know. Harvard Business School Press. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229099904_Working_Knowledge_How_Organizations_Manage_What_They_Know

De Long, D. W., & Fahey, L. (2000). Diagnosing Cultural Barriers to Knowledge Management. Academy of Management Executive, 14(4), 113-127. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230557514_Diagnosing_Cultural_Barriers_to_Knowledge_Management

Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The Knowledge-Creating Company: How Japanese Companies Create the Dynamics of Innovation. Oxford University Press. https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-knowledge-creating-company-9780195092691?cc=ua&lang=en&

Pan, S. L., & Scarbrough, H. (1998). A Socio-Technical View of Knowledge-Sharing at Buckman Laboratories. Journal of Knowledge Management, 2(1), 55-66. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235286847_A_Socio-Technical_View_of_Knowledge_Sharing_at_Buckman_Laboratories

Polanyi, M. (1966). The Tacit Dimension. Routledge & Kegan Paul. https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/The_Tacit_Dimension.html?id=jwLXAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y

Scarbrough, H. (2003). Knowledge Management, HRM and the Innovation Process. International Journal of Manpower, 24(5), 501-516. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235301713_Knowledge_management_HRM_and_the_innovation_process

Szulanski, G. (1996). Exploring Internal Stickiness: Impediments to the Transfer of Best Practice Within the Firm. Strategic Management Journal, 17(S2), 27-43. https://josephmahoney.web.illinois.edu/BADM%20545_Spring%202008/Paper/Szulanski%20(1996).pdf

Further Reading

Hansen, M. T., Nohria, N., & Tierney, T. (1999). What's Your Strategy for Managing Knowledge? Harvard Business Review, 77(2), 106-116. https://hbr.org/1999/03/whats-your-strategy-for-managing-knowledge

Kogut, B., & Zander, U. (1992). Knowledge of the Firm, Combinative Capabilities and the Replication of Technology. Organization Science, 3(3), 383-397. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228314105_Knowledge_of_the_Firm_Combinative_Capabilities_and_the_Replication_of_Technology

Leonard-Barton, D. (1995). Wellsprings of Knowledge: Building and Sustaining the Sources of Innovation. Harvard Business School Press. https://hollis.harvard.edu/primo-explore/fulldisplay?docid=01HVD_ALMA211967035640003941&context=L&vid=HVD2&lang=en_US&search_scope=everything&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&isFrbr=true&tab=everything&query=lsr01,contains,006051474&sortby=date&facet=frbrgroupid,include,394147142&mode=basic&offset=0 or https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225070500_The_Wellsprings_of_Knowledge

Nahapiet, J., & Ghoshal, S. (1998). Social Capital, Intellectual Capital and the Organizational Advantage. Academy of Management Review, 23(2), 242-266. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228314367_Social_Capital_Intellectual_Capital_and_the_Organizational_Advantage

Von Krogh, G., Ichijo, K., & Nonaka, I. (2000). Enabling Knowledge Creation: How to Unlock the Mystery of Tacit Knowledge and Release the Power of Innovation. Oxford University Press. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230557869_Enabling_Knowledge_Creation_How_To_Unlock_the_Mystery_of_Tacit_Knowledge_and_Release_the_Power_of_Innovation

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Note: This article provides a structured taxonomy of knowledge transfer, drawing on established theories and research in knowledge management. The references cited are foundational works that offer deeper insights into the concepts discussed. Readers interested in exploring these topics further are encouraged to consult the listed sources.

Disclaimer: Please note that parts of this post were assisted by an Artificial Intelligence (AI) tool. The AI has been used to generate certain content and provide information synthesis. While every effort has been made to ensure accuracy, the AI's contributions are based on its training data and algorithms and should be considered as supplementary information.

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[1] This is where a good training analysis looks for the ‘knack’ of a task.

[2] Where considering the strategic ‘why’ of this